BIOL
2401 Anatomy/Physiology Chapter I Dr.
Weis page 1
An Approach to Learning
:
1. Understand the material rather than
memorization
***** make it make sense to you ******
2. Keep in mind three concepts.........
a). the relationship between structure and
function
b). the body's organization and
communication
c). the need for homeostasis
These ideas and concepts will help you
understand why things happen and allow you to detect pathological processes and
eventually this knowledge will help you develop skills on how to formulate a
differential diagnosis, treatment options, and
prognosis. REMEMBER.................
TO
DETECT THE ABNORMAL, YOU MUST KNOW THE NORMAL
(Normal variation verses a marked deviation
is called an anomaly)
Defining
your course
ANATOMY
The study of internal and external structure
and the physical relationships between body parts.
This incldudes a broad field with many subdivisions.
1. Gross (Macroscopic)
features
visible to the eye without a microscope
e.g. Systemic
--> organ systems
Surface
Regional
2.
Developmental Anatomy
involve the changes that occur between
conception and physical maturity
Embryology -- concerned with the first few months can determine
congenital defects
3.
Microscopic Anatomy :: structures too small to
be seen without the aid of a microscope
.
Includes .................
a. Cytology..... study
Individual cells
b. Histology.... study Tissues
4. Other related areas
Pathology (pathological anatomy)
Molecular biology
Radiographic (x-ray)
Ultrasound
Surgical
Clinical :: case studies and applications of structure
and function
PHYSIOLOGY
Studies the function of anatomical structures
involving its physical and chemical processes and therefore related topics
include chemistry and physics.
Some studies include
1.
Cellular physiology... function of living cells
2. Histo pathology........ function
of tissues in disease states
3.
Organismal Physiology....function of organs and organ systems
4.
Pathological physiology.... effects of disease on organ/system function
Physiology
focuses on the cellular & molecular level....
What cells do affects tissues and organs, but cellular function depends on
the chemical reactions going on within them.
You will need to understand the how and
why of physiological processes.
To
summarize the Anatomy-Physiology relationship :
Function (Physiology) always reflects
structure (Anatomy)
and also what a structure
can do relates to it's form or makeup with regards to organization
Levels
of organization (building
of the Human body)
1.
Chemical (Atomic and Molecular)
2.
Cellular
3.
Tissue
4.
Organ
5.
System
6.
Organism
(Organisms
make up a population. Various
populations make up ecosystems and all the ecosystem
make up the Biosphere).
Damage to any level (1-4) can affect the
entire system
Damage
to one system can affect other systems as well as itself
Life functions of the organism
:
1.
Metabolism
2. respond to
its environment
3. adaptation
4. movement
5. grow/reproduce
Will involve energy requiring processes
such as ::
digestion, absorption, respiration, excretion, circulation
Homeostasis
homeo
= same stasis = stay, stop
Tendency for physiological
systems to stabilize internal conditions to create a dynamic state
of equilibrium or balance.
Communication within the body is necessary for
homeostasis and is accomplished by
three systems ::
nervous system (short term)
immune system (medium to long controls)
endocrine systems (for longest lasting controls).
These systems communicate by signals ::
chemical signals (between two cells)
electrical signals (between neurons and neurons and
cells)
The signals travel by various paths ::
chemical signals by way of the blood,
intracellular fluid
electrical signals by way of the nervous tissue
Homeostatic
control mechanisms have 3 components for the flow of information
::
Homeostatic control mechanisms
:
1. receptor --
receives information for sensory input
2. control
center -- analyzes and processes information
3. effector
-- response to info, the motor output
for muscle contraction or glandular secretion
Feedback mechanisms are the way in which Homeostasis is
achieved.
The majority of the feedback mechanisms
are negative feedback systems
a. Negative feedback
action
that directly opposes variation
e.g. temperature control
blood glucose
heart and respiration rates
b. Positive feedback
action
that exaggerates the stimulus and is self perpetuating
e.g. Blood clotting, labor,
Neuron impulses (action potentials),
compliment activation
FYI :: most positive feedback cycles are seen
in pathology (diseases) = AVicious cycle@
c. Homeostatic Imbalances
When response fails, symptoms
of disease such as aging or pathology
ANATOMICAL
VOCABULARY
universally accepted terminology that allows body
structures to be located and
identified with a minimum of words and a high
degree of precision.
1.
Anatomical reference point --> standard body position ::
upright,
facing forward and hands in a supine position.
2. Landmarks : describe
a particular area of the body
(Cephalic, patellar, carpal,
cervical)
3. Directional references :
indicate position
(Ventral/Dorsal,
Caudal/Cranial, Lateral/Medial, Proximal/Distal)
4. Regions : Axial and Appendicular
Abdominopelvic quadrants
(4) Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)
Right
Lower Quadrant (RLQ)
Left
Upper Quadrant (LUQ)
Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)
or
further divided into 9 areas ::
umbilical, epigastric, hypogastric, r/l iliac, r/l lumbar, r/l hypochondriac
Sectional
Anatomy
Major Body Planes :: create some of the directional terms used to indicate
position
1.
Transverse.......Right angles to long axis
tissue transversely sectioned for histology called Cross-section
References are superior / inferior OR
cranial / caudal
2.
Frontal......... Anterior / Posterior OR Dorsal / Ventral
3.
Sagittal.........Left and right
equal... midsagittal
unequal...
parasagittal
4. Oblique.......at 45 degree angle to
midsagittal and transverse
Use
of Sectional Anatomy based
on Body Planes
1a. X-Ray
Radiodensity (X-ray
penetration)
air
fat
soft
tissue
(liver,
blood, muscle)
bone
metal
Two dimensional picture of a three
dimensional object
Negative image, static
Easily penetrate -- strike plate --
expose -- dark
no
penetration -- unexposed
-- white
KV, mA, S :
settings will determine degree of grayness
Contrast medium........ Barium (GI)
Dyes (Angiogram,
Renal)
1b. Fluoroscope :: x-ray images on flourescent
screen, real time dynamic images
2. CT Scans (CAT scans)
Reconstructs 3d, sections using X-Ray and
Computer
Special high speed CT ::
allows for dynamic reconstruction of body organ function
3. MRI
Magnetic field, radio waves, use Hydrogen ions in the body and record Amovement@
4. Ultrasound....... Sound waves, echoes
received, best to see fluid environments (Cardiac, uterus)
5. PET --> nuclear medicine, detecting radioisotopes
BODY
CAVITIES
Various
Types:
I.
Closed Body Cavities
Two major closed body cavities that
contain internal organs
Located with in the axial portion (long axis)
of the body
1.
Dorsal Body Cavity that contains the
cranial
cavity (brain) and spinal chord.
2.
Ventral Body Cavity that is divided by the diaphragm and contains the
a.
thoracic cavity
* right and left
pleural cavity that house each lung
* mediastinum that contains all other thoracic organs
has one sac the pericardium :: pericardial
cavity houses the heart
b.
abdominopelvic : two parts
abdominal cavity for upper gi,
upper urinary
pelvic cavity for lower gi,
lower urinary, reproductive
Organs in the thoracic cavity invaginate the serous membrane
linings creating either
the pleural cavity or pericardial cavity.
Remember that the right or left lungs and heart are
not inside these membrane sacs,
but are only covered by them. This is important to understand for disease
processes and treatment.
.
The
ventral body cavity is lined by a thin lightly fluid filled double membrane
called the SEROSA or serous membrane.
The fluid inside is known as SEROSAL FLUID. This membrane lines the cavity walls and is
called PARIETAL SEROSA and will fold in itself to cover the outer surfaces of
organs to form the VISCERAL SEROSA.
Imagine
a balloon filled up with some water and air, and then sealed. Place it in a box and then stick your fist
into the balloon so it is completely covered.
The balloon is the lining, the box is a body cavity and your fist
represents the organ in that area. The
portion of the balloon lining that touches
your fist is the visceral serosa. The portion of the balloon lining that
touches the box (body) is the parietal serosa. The word serosa
will be exchanged for the sac name.
Examples are visceral pleura or parietal pericardium, etc.
Serous
membrane coverings on organs (generally called the visceral serous membrane)
will have specific names :
epicardium (heart), pulmonary pleura (lungs), peritoneum (abdominal organs)
II.
Open
body cavities are considered open since they willl open to the body exteriorly
and include :
1. oral/digestive
2. nasal/ respiratory
3. orbital
4. middle ear
True
open body cavities will be lined by a mucous membrane.
III.
Other: Synovial Cavity
The synovial body
cavity has a synovial membrane lining and it is
structure is slightly different than most body membranes.